Each year, researchers track strains of influenza as they develop an updated influenza vaccine. In recent years, this vaccine has been a quadrivalent one, i.e., one containing antigens targeting four influenza strains (two type A and two type B influenza viruses), although for the 2024-2025 season, the influenza B/Yamagata strain has been dropped from the vaccine (this is because we have not detected it since March 2020, and we believe we have driven it to extinction as a result of non-pharmaceutical interventions implemented at the start of the COVID pandemic – i.e., a happy victory for humans!) In addition to the possibility of changing strains based on their prevalence, researchers update the specific antigens for each strain involved. This is because even if a strain included last year is still a dominant one this year, it will have undergone sufficient ______ via the accumulation of point mutations that the effectiveness of our immune response from last year will not be as protective this year. Copyright 2025 by Dr. Jonathan A. Miller. All rights reserved. Online sharing or distribution is prohibited. For exam use only in BIOL& 260: Microbiology at Edmonds College. Outside help is not allowed.

Some viruses (e.g. human herpesvirus 1) can infect a cell without causing symptoms. These viruses are called ______. Copyright 2025 by Dr. Jonathan A. Miller. All rights reserved. Online sharing or distribution is prohibited. For exam use only in BIOL& 260: Microbiology at Edmonds College. Outside help is not allowed.

When an individual is infected with a virus, each time the viral genome is replicated, there is the chance the polymerase will make mistakes. Mistakes that lead to missense mutations result in changes in viral proteins. Accumulations of such point mutations over time results in changes in viruses referred to as ______. Copyright 2025 by Dr. Jonathan A. Miller. All rights reserved. Online sharing or distribution is prohibited. For exam use only in BIOL& 260: Microbiology at Edmonds College. Outside help is not allowed.

Please consider the graph below showing rates of infectious diseases in the United States from 1900 (note typo on graph at bottom left!) to 2000. Why have the rates of infectious diseases decreased over this time period, and what important factors explain this trend? According to this graph, which of these factors produced the greatest reduction in the rate of infectious disease? Please explain. Copyright 2025 by Dr. Jonathan A. Miller. All rights reserved. Online sharing or distribution is prohibited. For exam use only in BIOL& 260: Microbiology at Edmonds College. Outside help is not allowed.

Explain what Rios means by ‘social death.”

What is the main reason J.T. avoids getting into trouble?

Fill in the information:Name:Surname:Contact No:

What was a significant impact of the Gulf War on U.S. media coverage?

What event caused the U.S. to initiate Operation Desert Shield?

What act significantly expanded the surveillance powers of U.S. law enforcement after the 9/11 attacks?