Upload your answers to these questions. a.) Outline the reactions required to release a molecule of stored glucose from liver glycogen into the bloodstream. You may use acceptable abbreviations for the names of compounds–structures are not necessary. Include enzyme names or general type of enzymatic reaction for each step. (3 pts.) b.) Again in the liver, outline the series of reactions required to store a molecule of glucose as glycogen. You may use acceptable abbreviations for the names of compounds-–structures are not necessary. Include enzyme names or general type of enzymatic reaction for each step.  (3 pts.) c.) Briefly explain what provides the free energy required for the reactions outlined in part b.  (2 pts.)

Identify the eight following cofactors and coenzymes and, from the metabolic reactions we have encountered, name a reaction that requires the cofactor. Name or acceptable abbreviation is ok. (1 pt. each)   Name:                                      Rection:   c.         Name:                                     Reaction: d. By NEUROtiker – Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1555660 Name:                                    Reaction:

Upload an image of your answers to this question. Draw the following structures: Oleamide, the simple amide (NH2) of oleic acid has been isolated from the spinal fluid of cats and identified as the molecule responsible for causing sleep. In humans, oleoyl ethanolamide is an endogenous regulator of food intake produced in the intestines and has potential as an anti-obesity drug. Draw the structure of oleic acid. (2 pts.) Anandamide functions as an endogenous ligand of cannabinoid (psychoactive compounds in marijuana) receptors in humans and gets its name from the Sanskrit word, “ananda”, meaning bliss. This compound is the ethanolamine (HO-CH2-CH2-NH2) amide of arachidonic acid. Draw the structure of anandamide. (3 pts.) Saplenic acid 16:1(D10) is the most abundant lipid component of human sebum. Draw the structure of this fatty acid. (2 pts.) Phosphtidylserine is a regulator of apoptosis (programmed cell death, causing a cell to commit “suicide”) in response to calcium-dependent stimuli. Draw a phosphatidylserine of your choice with two different unsaturated fatty acids and give the names of the acids you chose to draw. (3 pts.) Ceramide-1-phosphate is a potent inhibitor of apoptosis or programmed cell death, as well as an inducer of cell survival. Draw the ceramide that has a linolenic acid attached and a phosphate attached at the terminal, 1 position. (3 pts.) A very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (VLC-PUFA) is found in a glycerophopholipid associated with the retinal membrane in the eye. This is a phosphtidyl choline compound with DHA (docosahexenoic acid – C-22:6 (D4….) esterified at the 1 position of the glycerol and a C-34:6

Upload an image of your answer to this question. Both pyruvate decarboxylase (an enzyme associated with alcoholic fermentation) and one of the enzymes in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (E1) require thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP).  In fact, the substrate goes through common carbanion intermediate in both of these enzymatic reactions. a. Outline the mechanism for the formation of this common resonance stabilized carbanion intermediate starting with pyruvate and show how this carbanion intermediate is resonance stabilized.  For TPP, you only have to show the structural part that is involved in the reaction (the business end of the cofactor).  (3 pts.) b). Beginning with the common stabilized carbanion anion intermediate, show how acetaldehyde is formed as the product of pyruvate decarboxylase in alcoholic fermentation and how a covalent S-acetyl dihydrolipoyl (the 2-C piece attached to the lipoic acid) intermediate is formed in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.  For TPP and lipoic acid, you only have to show the ring structural part that is involved in the reaction (the business end of the cofactor).  (3 pts.)

Upload an image of your answer to this question.  There are two cofactors, lipoic acid (the crane), FAD, which are alternately reduced and oxidized in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, and NAD+, which is reduced as a final product. Draw the structures of the reduced forms of each of these three cofactors (do not include the Cys amino acid residues associated with the protein). You only need to show the relevant structural ring parts that change when each of these are reduced. (6 pts.)     Reduced form of Lipoic acid         Reduced form of FAD                Reduced form of  NAD+

The very first ingredient listed on the label of a Fiber One chewy granola bar is chicory root extract. Chicory root is a source of the polysaccharide inulin. Inulin is classified as a fructan or a polymer of fructose similar to glucans, which are polymers of glucose (starches and cellulose).  However, one end of this polysaccharide is modified by the addition of a different sugar residue. The trisaccharide structure forming the modified end is shown in the figure above and is known as kestose.  Type your response to the following prompts in the text box below.  a. Identify the added sugar residue and the nature of the glycosidic bond or linkage that attaches it to the fructose dimer and the nature of the glycosidic linage connecting the two fructose units. (2 pts.) Added sugar: Bond between the added sugar and Fru dimer: Fru-Fru bond b. Is kestose classified as a reducing sugar? Briefly explain why or why not.  (2 pts.) c.  Other significant ingredients of the Fiber One bar include high maltose corn syrup and maltodextrin. Maltodextrin is a mixture of oligosaccharides with the same structure as amylose ranging from three to nineteen glucose units in length. Identify the sugar residues that make up the maltodextrins and the type of glycosidic linkage that connects them together to form a maltodextrin.  (2 pts.)  

Upload an image of your answers to this question. Draw the structure of the N-terminal residue at pH 12.0.  (2 pts) Draw the structure of the C-terminal residue at pH 1.0 ?  (2 pts.) Draw the principle structure of residue number  2 at pH 5 showing the absolute stereochemical configuration of the L family of amino acids. (3 pts.)

The calcitonin gene can encode either the hormone calcitonin or a protein called calcitonin-gene-related peptide depending on which 3′ cleavage site is used. In the thyroid gland, cleavage and polyadenylation occur after the fourth exon leading to calcitonin production. However, in the brain, the exact same transcript is cleaved after the sixth exon yielding calcitonin-gene-related peptide. This is possible because of a process known as:

Bonus question: the image from the question above could NOT represent a prokaryotic transcript because prokaryotic transcripts lack 5′ UTR or 3′ UTR

Scientists have developed novel techniques that allow them to visualize the process of DNA replication in vitro. What conclusions can you draw about the DNA replication process shown below?