According to the cognitive processing model, what specific type of cognitive process is a craving?

Which of the following statements is true regarding an important difference between an experiment and a quasi-experiment? 

I am a proponent of the disease model of addiction. More specifically, I believe that drug use causes disease-related changes to the brain that consequently result in addiction. In other words, exposure to the drug itself is what is responsible for producing addiction. What is the term to describe this basic understanding of addiction?

Which of the following is a major advantage of using a balanced placebo design in substance use research?

1.1.2 Kuyiqiniso noma umbono ukuthi into ongayisebenzelanga kanzima awuyihloniphi? Sekela impendulo yakho. (3)

4.3 Ikuphi okusivezela ukuthi u-Ankeli umangele futhi ikuphi okusivezela ukuthi umshana uyacasuka? (2)

As part of a research study, I am sometimes given a substance that makes my heart rate increase, and at other times I am given a substance that has no effect on me (placebo). During these administrations, I am also asked to press buttons for which I can earn money. I learn that on the days when I experience my heart racing, I should press button 1 to receive reward, and on days when I don’t experience that effect I should press button 2 to receive reward. Thus, the presence of the drug is essentially telling me how to behave to receive reward, and is serving as a:

I want to know if college students perform better on a math test when they take Adderall. Forty students participate in this research on two occasions: on one visit they receive Adderall, and on the other they receive a placebo. This way I can directly compare each subject’s performance on Adderall to their performance on placebo, while keeping individual levels of intelligence constant. Neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows which type of pill the subject gets on each visit. What type of experiment is this?

What is the main idea of Hubbert’s Peak?

“ so distinct that only relatively recently has __________________  included it when calculating Canada’s reserves.”