The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires every drug t…

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires every drug to pass a stringent testing procedure that is divided into different phases or stages (sometimes called “clinical trials”).  Which stage requires the drug manufacturer to test their new drug against the currently available drugs that treat the same condition?

At the very general level, the diffusion gradient (high to l…

At the very general level, the diffusion gradient (high to low) for oxygen actually favors the loss of oxygen from the blood into the air.  How does the body “reverse” this, creating a situation where oxygen actually wants to enter the blood from the air despite the “wrong” overall gradient?